MIS :: Electronic information

Electronic information is essential to the achievement of government organizational objectives. Its reliability, integrity, and availability are significant concerns in most audits. The use of computer networks, particularly the Internet, is revolutionizing the way government conducts business. While the benefits have been enormous and vast amounts of information are now literally at our fingertips, these interconnections also pose significant risks to computer systems, information, and to the critical operations and infrastructures they support. Infrastructure elements such as telecommunications, power distribution, national defense, law enforcement, and government and emergency services are subject to these risks. The same factors that benefit operationsÂâ€"speed and accessibilityÂâ€"if not properly controlled, can leave them vulnerable to fraud, sabotage, and malicious or mischievous acts. In addition, natural disasters and inadvertent errors by authorized computer users can have devastating consequences if information resources are poorly protected. Recent publicized disruptions caused by virus, worm, and denial of service attacks on both commercial and governmental Web sites illustrate the potential for damage. Computer security is of increasing importance to all levels of government in minimizing the risk of malicious attacks from individuals and groups. These risks include the fraudulent loss or misuse of government resources, unauthorized access to release of sensitive information such as tax and medical records, disruption of critical operations through viruses or hacker attacks, and modification or destruction of data. The risk that information attacks will threaten vital national interests increases with the following developments in information technology: • Monies are increasingly transferred electronically between and among governmental agencies, commercial enterprises, and individuals. • Governments are rapidly expanding their use of electronic commerce. • National defense and intelligence communities increasingly rely on commercially available information technology. • Public utilities and telecommunications increasingly rely on computer systems to manage everyday operations. • More and more sensitive economic and commercial information is exchanged electronically. • Computer systems are rapidly increasing in complexity and interconnectivity. • Easy-to-use hacker tools are readily available, and hacker activity is increasing. • Paper supporting documents are being reduced or eliminated. Each of these factors significantly increases the need for ensuring the privacy, security, and availability of state and local government systems. Although as many as 80 percent of security breaches are probably never reported, the number of reported incidents is growing dramatically. For example, the number of incidents handled by Carnegie-Mellon University's CERT Coordination Center1 has multiplied over 86 times since 1990,2 rising from 252 in 1990 to 21,756 in 2000. Further, the Center has handled over 34,000 incidents during the first three quarters of 2001. Similarly, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reports that its case load of

What Did You Buy Into Today? Essay -- Advertising Media Papers

What Did You Buy Into Today? Take a look at your shoes. Check the breast of the shirt you are wearing. Don’t forget the ass of your pants. What about the food you ate for lunch or the computer you typed your paper on? There is no denying that we are living in a brand name life. People have become consumers whether they’ve wanted to or not. It is impossible to walk through life without being bombarded by image after image of a branded identity. From Nike to McDonald’s, Apple to Evian, the â€Å"brand† has worked its way into consumer consciousness on a level that has not been seen in the past. Humans strive for individuality, so how did we so willingly give ourselves over to the brands that now consume us? A common misconception about branding is that branding and advertising are both one in the same. This, however, is not the case. Advertising is only one key component that a company uses to create their own branded image; an image that encompasses everything the company wants the public to know about the meaning of its products. Advertising is just an outlet to get that message across. â€Å"Branding† is a by-product of a society that has too many similar products, a natural occurrence in a free-market capitalist country. The goal of branding is to separate one similar product from another by altering the way that a consumer feels about a certain product at a sub-conscious level. For instance, a marketing campaign common to almost all of us tries to create a distinction in our mind between Coke and Pepsi. To do this, brand makers will work to infiltrate their target market and create an image for the product that closely resembles the image of the target market, thus burning i n the idea that their product is an important aspect of so... ...Nike swoosh being altered to resemble a gun shooting the high soaring basketball player. The results are quick and effective, and spread to others outside your immediate sphere of influence. The more you expose the underlying meaning of the ads around us the more people will think about all the ads and marketing pushes that coincide with their life. It’s time to once again reclaim your life as your own. Question the images put before you. Urge others to do the same. Support independent retail outlets and companies that still produce the products that they are selling to you. If you must buy branded products, purchase them second hand. If there’s a mass exodus away from the cash registers of these branded pseudo companies then the tides will change and we’ll see our lives return to us as they once stood, uninterrupted and full with a passion for living once again.

The Deadly Ebola Virus :: Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (Ebola HF)

"The only sound is a choking in his throat as he continues to vomit while unconscious. Then comes a sound like a bed sheet being torn in half, which is the sound of his bowels opening at the sphincter and venting blood. The blood is mixed with his intestinal lining. He has sloughed off his gut. The lining of his intestines have come off and are being expelled along with huge amounts of blood" (Preston 17). Ebola hemorrhagic fever is probably the most publicized virus since AIDS. And for a good reason too. People "crashing out," vomiting their organs, bleeding all over the place, it certainly catches one's attention. Richard Preston's The Hot Zone, Robin Cook's Outbreak and miscellaneous exposà ©s on television have alerted the public to what was once considered a minor problem. Ebola is extremely dangerous and much study is being devoted to it so it does not become a major threat to the human race. "Ebola is one of the most pathogenic viruses known to science, causing death in 50%- 90% of all clinically ill cases." It is known for its sudden onset of fever, weakness, muscle pain, headache and sore throat that is followed by vomiting, diarrhea, organ disfunction and internal and external bleeding. It can be in the body 2 to 21 days before any symptoms can be noticed. There is no vaccine and scientists do not know where it originated. Ebola is transmitted by contact with blood, secretions, organs or semen of infected persons. It was first identified in Sudan and Zaire in 1976 (World 1996). There are four known varieties of Ebola; Ebola Zaire, Ebola Sudan, Ebola Reston and Ebola Tai. Zaire, Sudan and Tai cause illness in humans and primates unlike Reston that affects primates only. What makes them different from each other is not their shape, for that is quite similar, but their gene structure. Ebola Zaire and Ebola Sudan were first isolated in 1976 at the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia, Porton Down in England and the Institute for Tropical Diseases in Antwerp, Belgium. Years later, Ebola Zaire and Ebola Sudan were found to be different strains by Dr. Joseph McCormick of the CDC. In 1989, Dr. Peter Jahrling of the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) identified the Reston strain. Ebola Tai was identified in 1995 by Dr. Bernard LeGuenno of Institute Pasteur in Paris.

Hamptonshire Express: Problems 1-3 Essay

Problem #1 A. How many newspapers should Sheen stock? Use the simulation in the spreadsheet â€Å"Hamptonshire Express: Problem #1† to identify the optimal stocking quantity. What is the profit at this stocking quantity? Optimal Stocking Quantity: 584 Expected profit at Optimal Stocking Quantity: $331.43 B. Verify that the value derived in part (a) is consistent with the optimal stocking quantity in the Newsvendor model = mean = 500 = Standard Deviation = 100 = Overage Cost = $0.20†$0 = $0.20 = Shortage Cost = $0.20†$1.00 = †$0.80 = 1†.8 = .2 ïÆ'   corresponding z†value = .84 . âˆâ€" Problem #2 A. How many hours should Sheen invest daily in the creation of the profile section? The optimal amount of hours Sheen should invest results in optimal profit/day at: 4 hours With optimal stocking quantity: 685 And expected profit/day: $371.33 B. What explains Sheen’s choice of effort level h? Since the marginal cost of her effort is $10/hour and the marginal benefit of her effort is equal to: 8 * 50 = 10 ïÆ'   h = 4 2√ The hours invested will be optimized when marginal cost = marginal benefit, in this case h = 4. C. Compare the optimal profit under this scenario with the optimal profit derived in Problem #1. Optimal Profit in #1 = $331.43 @ 584 units = $0.5675/unit Optimal Profit in #2 = $371.33 @ 685 units = $0.5421/unit Although the optimal profit is increased from scenario 1 to scenario 2 by $39.90 the per unit profit is down by 0.0254/unit produced, however since overall profit is up, the added hours invested is still optimal. Problem #3 A. Assuming h=4 what would Armentrout’s stocking quantity be? Armentrout’s optimal stocking quantity is 516 B. Why does the optimal stocking quantity differ from the optimal stocking quantity identify in Problem #2? Is the result here consistent with the newsvendor formula? The optimal stocking quantities differ because there is a new player involved and new costs associated with overages and shortages. These results are still consistent with the newsvendor formula since the new model looks like: = mean = 600 = Standard Deviation = 100 = Overage Cost = $0.80 = Shortage Cost = $1.00†$0.80 = $0.20 = 1†.8 = .2 ïÆ'   corresponding z†value = †.85 . âˆâ€" C. Now try varying h†¦ How does her optimal effort in this question differ from the answer in question 2? Why? In Question 2, Sheen’s profit is maximized at optimal effort = 4. In Question 3, Sheen’s profit is optimal when h = 2 because her profits are being shared with Armentrout and the amount of hours Sheen invests determines the amount of copies that Armentrout will purchase depending on his demand. D. How would changing the transfer price from the current value of $0.80 per newspaper impact Sheen’s effort level and Armentrout’s stocking decision? Transfer Price Increase from $0.80 to $0.90 = Sheen’s Effort = 2.25 to 3.063 Armentrout’s Stocking Decision = 491 to 459 Sheen’s incentivized to put in more effort and therefore reap more profit but Armentrout’s stock will decline and make less profit if transfer price is increased. Transfer Price Decrease from $0.80 to $0.70 = Sheen’s Effort = 2.25 to 1.563 Armentrout’s Stocking Decision = 491 to 510 If the transfer price is decreased, Sheen’s incentivized to put in less effort because she is making less profit and Armentrout’s stock will increase since his costs are lower allowing him to make a higher profit. E. What conclusion can you draw about stocking and effort levels in a differentiated channel vis†Ãƒ  Ã¢â‚¬  vis an integrated firm that manufactures and retails its product? Stocking and effort levels are optimized throughout the chain in an integrated firm that manufactures and retails it’s products because there is a direct benefit and because incentives are aligned between manufacturing and retailing. They want to put forth the optimal effort to produce the maximum amount of units that will optimize profits. Optimal Profit in Problem #2 @ h=4: $371.33 @ 685 Units with fill rate 98% In a differentiated firm when there is an added level, in this case a level to retail, the manufacturing and retailing parties do not share the same goals, therefore stocking and effort levels are not optimized. Supplier only wants to produce as much as retail will buy at the minimum effort level and retail only wants to buy as much as will make them an optimal profit, I because stocking excess will incur losses. Optimal Profit in Problem #3 @ h=4 @ 516 Units with fill rate of only 86%

A Fledgling’s Masterpeice Essay

Citizen Kane is widely hailed as the â€Å"great American film† and with good reason. From its complex narrative structure to pioneering photography to its incredibly rich use of sound, Welles’ 1941 picture remains one of the most innovative movies ever to come out of a Hollywood studio. Even Today Citizen Kane stands out as one of the great films of all time. Unfolding almost entirely in flashback, Welles’s masterpiece presents various perspectives on the oversized life of the recently deceased Charles Foster Kane. Through the reminiscences of friends, family, and coworkers, the film moves from Kane’s childhood to his rambunctious adolescence, from the heights of his success to the depths of his isolation. All the while there is a search for clues to Kane’s mysterious last word: â€Å"Rosebud.† The puzzling phrase drives the tale, but ultimately it is only a means of exploring the film’s real theme: the impossibility of truly understanding any human being. In the film Kane (Orson Welles, who also directed and co-wrote the screenplay) is separated from his parents as a child and made heir to an enormous fortune. Coming of age, he decides to run a newspaper, sensationalizing the news and considering himself to be the voice of the people. With ambitions beyond publishing, he runs for New York Governor, and later promotes the singing career of his second wife Susan. He also builds Xanadu, an extravagant palace that is never finished. These various ambitions fail, and Kane dies a wealthy but spiritually broken man. When William Randolph Hearst (multimillionaire and media tycoon) got wind of what 25-year-old Orson Welles was creating at RKO’s film studio, he feared his life was the inspiration for the main character. In response Hearst and his newspapers employed all their influence to try and stop Citizen Kane’s 1941 release. John O’Hara of Newsweek addresses just this controversy in his review of Citizen Kane. He begins by stating that Citizen Kane is the finest film that  he has ever seen and that Orson Welles is the greatest actor ever. This is a bold statement to make at the time because it was printed before the film was released and before any kind of public consensus could be made. O’Hara’s observation would turn out to be somewhat true. His reasons for promoting Citizen Kane are no more than pure enthusiasm and support for a film that impressed him greatly. He states that his intension is to make you want to see the picture that he believes to be â€Å"as good a picture as was ever made†. (O’Hara 60) O’Hara seems to be more of an excited fan than a film critic. His unbridled enthusiasm is evident in every sentence of his review. He appears to be an admirer of Orson Welles’ just as much as the movie itself. He states that Citizen Kane lacks nothing. Later in the article, as if to be reassuring, he says that â€Å"aside from what it does lack Citizen Kane has Orson Welles†. He compares Welles to artists like F. Scott Fitzgerald who had gone unrecognized until after his death. He ends his article with the statement that there has never been a better actor than Orson Welles and then repeats that very statement. (O’Hara 60) The controversy surrounding Citizen Kane and W. R. Hearst is also addressed by Bosely Crowther of the New York Times. He says that â€Å"suppression of this film would be a crime†. But unlike O’Hara, Crowther seems a little more critical of the film. He says that Welles’ abundance of imagery is so great that it sometimes gets in the way of his logic. He also claims that the film â€Å"fails to provide a clear picture of the character and motive behind the man whom the whole film revolves†.(Crowther 5) Aside from the few critical points, Crowther was very complimentary towards Citizen Kane. He comments on the excellent direction of Mr. Welles and the sure and penetrating performances of the entire cast.Crother feels that Citizen Kane is one of the most realistic takes on the cinema to date. He describes it as cynical, ironic, oppressive, and realistic. â€Å"Citizen Kane has more vitality than fifteen other films we could name†. (Crowther5) The New Yorker’s John Marsh also is very complimentary of Citizen Kane, but  for much more technical reasons. He addresses the many aspects of the film that set it apart from all others. â€Å"Since movies hitherto have commenced with a cast list and a vast directory of credits, we are promptly jolted out of our seats when Citizen Kane ignores this convention and slides at once into the film.† He believes that this formal difference is revolutionary enough to establish Welles’ independence from convention. â€Å"This independence, like fresh air, sweeps on and on through the movie.†(Marsh 79) Marsh also comments on Welles’ method of storytelling with the use of repetition and flashing scenes. â€Å"With a few breakfast scenes, the progress of a marriage is shown as specifically as if we had read the wife’s diary. To Marsh something new has come to the movie world at last. He believes that the film’s triumphant quality is that although Kane is presented as a villainous miser, the human touch is not lost. Sympathy for the preposterous Mr. Kane survives. All three of these writers share a similar opinion about Citizen Kane. Individually they each appreciate different aspects of the film. John O’Hara is intoxicated with the performance of Orson Welles, both in front and behind the camera. Bosely Crowther discusses the reality of the film itself. John Marsh believes that it’s unconventional approach is what will set Citizen Kane apart from other movies in the future. Although each writer praises different aspects of the movie they all agree that Citizen Kane is a film that will drastically alter the film making processfrom now on.

Limitations of Machines Essay

What is 9,999,999 times 9,999,999? You would not be able to enter that in your calculator, because your calculator has limitations on what it can accomplish, as do all machines. A machine must have boundaries. If these boundaries were ever breached machine could become alive. From the wise mouth of Elbert Hubbard, â€Å"One machine can do the work of fifty men. No machine can do the work of one extraordinary man.† A machine will never exceed the potential of an outstanding individual. No matter how complex or advanced the technology it will never best a genuine- unique man. The use of machines has and should always be tools. Once the machine becomes more useful than the creator it stops being a tool and thus breaks it s natural limits. This has never happened before because machines lack a specific trait that every living thing has. That trait, the undeniable ability is called a free will. Without free will even us humans would never be able to surpass are limits. The choices you can make are what separates you from a living being and machine. It is because they stay chained to one path is the reason why a machine’s abilities will never exceed a human’s potential. Think about why machines were first built. It’s not because they were needed, rather it is because they were convenient. Technology was created to quickly do the average man’s work. You cannot build a machine that does your normal job without first knowing how accomplish it without the use of a machine. This proves machines were built out of curiosity, rather than out of necessity. The earliest machines were built to function to a certain limit. Without that restraint machines would cease to be exactly what they are. A machine is a tool that can execute at an almost perfect accuracy. Machines only accomplish this feet, because they operate within their own area or limitations. A machine without limitations will not function affectively and accurately. It will cease to be, and its identity of a machine will dissipate. Scientists have pondered making a machine without boundaries or restrictions. They wish to build something like humans called, â€Å"Artificial intelligence.† It will have feelings and free will. It will be able to make unreasonable decisions based on instinct, but its instinct could lead it to making the wrong choices. Some fear if artificial intelligence was ever created, mankind would fall. Technology should never pass a certain extremity, because we would lose the sight of those extraordinary men. When thinking back about what Elbert Hubbard said, I strongly believe machines were built to share the abilities of those unique extraordinary men. Machines are built to answer what has already been solved by man. They are built to make life less difficult throughout day. The machine is meant to be as useful as the inventor created it to be. No more no less, because a machine without limits is it really a machine.

Brazil vs. Costa Rica Essay

With the growing global concern for the environment, new products, industries, and sustainable practices have emerged across a number of industries. The industry of tourism on an international and domestic scale is no different. Over the past few decades, the global tourism industry has witnessed an immense increase in travel based on environmentally sound practices, devised to be sustainable . Travellers are becoming increasingly interested in natural environments, cultures, and adventures. For this new market segment activities such as wilderness viewing, wildlife observation and hiking/trekking opportunities have become more popular to a wider base of customers within the tourism and travel industry . This new form of tourism, also known as ecotourism, has also become an integral part of a number of country’s environmental and economic practices . According to Rual Goueva in his article Managing the Ecotourism Industry in Latin America:Challenges and Opportunities, ecotourism is a specific kind of tourism that â€Å"fosters, promotes, and acts as a catalyst for environmental protection †. It is in his view that ecotourism strategies must pay a great deal of attention to the following: (1) economic development, (2) environmental protection, (3) cultural protection, (4) social development and, (5) political development. As a more sustainable form of tourism, ecotourism offers an alternative and highly effective means for developing and developed economies to blend their economies into the global economy and often â€Å"provides incentives to establish sustainable development strategies †. In summary, ecotourism should concentrate on efforts to maximize the benefits of tourism while minimizing the environmental, economic, political, social, and cultural impacts of tourism. Additionally, policies have to be devised to optimize the allocation of resources from ecoturism revenues to preserve and sustain the resource base. It is, however, important to note the lack of a homogeneous definition of eco-tourism activities within the tourism industry and thus difficult to assess its impacts. Under their functional definition, the World Tourism Organization/OMT concluded in 1998 that ecotourism represents about 2 to 4 percent of total global tourism. However, this percentage is estimated to be much larger as the industry has grown almost exponentially in the past few years and the share of ecotourism broadly defined as tourists that travel to observe and enjoy nature has been expanding steadily during the last decade. Another source with a similar functional definition, the International Ecotourism Society (TIES), estimated that ecotourism is expanding by 20% annually, compared with 7% expansion for the tourism industry as a whole. The specific segment of ecotourism generated around USD 154 billion in revenues for the year 2000 . Continuing, TIES also estimates that between 40%-60% of travel around the world is nature-related and that between 20%-40% of tourists are specifically wildlife related tourists . Furthermore, it should be noted that this segment of tourism can have profound affects on a nation’s economy. It has been noted that ecotourism is primarily led by supply side economics rather than demand. In other words, the quality of the ecotourism experience is positively correlated to the level of environmental protection the local ecosystem enjoys. Ecotourism is therefore classified as a normal good or service. Additionally, it is critical that eco-ventures pay specific attention to the level of environmental disturbance and disruption that ecological and social systems can sustain . As it has been noted, any level of interaction and/or intervention with a local ecosystem may have environmental impacts, which must be minimized in order to preserve the nature being enjoyed via ecotourism . As the effects of tourism within natural and/or preserved areas can hinder or help a specific ecosystem, many policy makers around the world are paying much more attention to the regulation of natural areas. Several countries that are trying to find a compromise between economic development and environmental protection are becoming the leaders in Ecotourism. Countries that are rich in natural resources but that are not yet implementing sustainable development strategies are being encouraged to promote activities such as ecotourism . Ecotourism must be approached as a part of a number of initiatives to protect local ecosystems. At the macro level, a nation pursuing ecotourism should include as many federal, state, and local agencies as possible. It has also been noted that ecotourism must be a part of the country overall economic development and growth as well . This paper was intented to examine the economic, environmental and social aspects of two countries currently participating in the industry of ecotourism, Costa Rica and Brazil. However before an analysis can begin, it is necessary to review the formation of ecotourim in each country and examine how, when, and why ecotourism came about. Costa Rica is known as country with rich and robust biodiversity. However, in the past few decades, it has experienced an increase in amount of deforestation within the country . Like a number of developing countries, such as Brazil, Costa Rica has been steadily loosing its lush forests to agricultural uses. Between 1950 and 1990, it was estimated that the country lost about half of its total forest cover due to agricultural development . Furthermore, b the early to mid 1990s, only about 6 percent of the country’s land area (not including parks and nationally recognized protected areas) remained in intact primary forest . However, this rapid decline in forest covering has slowed in recent years with the growth of an internationally renowned national park system; which has preserved over 10 percent of the country’s total primary forests . As of today, Costa Rica has secured land throughout the country for over 25 national parks, reserves, and wildlife refuges for endangered species (as shown in Figure 1. 1, adopted from SOURCE). Along with the government’s formal protection of the land, ecotourism has been said to hinder the rate of deforestation as well. Ecotourism in Costa Rica began in the mid-1980s as a way to stop the deforestation and to generate needed foreign exchange for the economy. Tourism in general in Costa Rica has been one of the most dynamic sectors of the economy. In 1992 tourism earnings totaled $421 million, making it the second largest foreign exchange earner after bananas. Moreover, ecotourism has been rapidly expanding as well accounting for 36 percent of net tourism earnings in 1989. In sum, according to Stacy Small, Production Editor of Caribbean Travel and Life Magazine, â€Å"Costa Rica’s tourism industry has been increasing in size for many years now, and one reason for this upsurge is the appeal of and demand for ecotourism† . Costa Rica has been promoting and expanding its ecotourism industry. The Environmental Secretariat and the Costa Rican Tourism Institute have become largely responsible for the development and coordination of ecotourism policies in the country . Due to a high level of governmental involvement and the formation of societal institutions such as The Environmental Secretariat, Costa Rica has become the primary example of country in Latin America with a successful ecotourism industry. Their rich ecosystem, accounting for an outstanding 5% of the world’s biodiversity, offers the country a natural competitive advantage in the industry . Additionally, ecotourism has become the main motivation for tourists within the country. In the early 1980s, an estimated 370,000 tourists traveled to the country of Costa Rica. By 2002, about 1. 1 million tourists arrived in Costa Rica, with the vast majority, 830,000 people, being ecotourists or individuals participating in nature related travel . The ectourism sector of Costa Rica has become quite diverse, from bird watching to volcano climbing and kayaking. To date, Costa Rica has approximately 25% of its territory under governmental protection, 1. million hectares, with 12% of its territory composed of national parks and privately owned reserves . It should also be noted that the private reserves of Costa Rica utilized for ecotourism are the areas that develop and generate the most income. Take for example the Monteverde Biological Preserve, the habitat of the exotic golden toad, has become famous worldwide and is internationally recognized as one of the best areas of ecotourism in Latin America. Over the last two decades, the Monteverde reserve has earned more income than all other national parks combined with its main source of financing coming from admission fees and grants . Rara Avis is another private reserve that has turned to ecotourism. Rara Avis was opened in 1983, and contains 3,000 acres of primary and secondary forest. It borders on the Braulio Cariilo National Park and the Zona Protetora La Selva, a research station. Private banks financed Rara Avis, and it was the first of its kind in the country. Rara Avis has shown that ecotourism can become a profitable way to manage tropical forest resources. However, in more recent years, Costa Rica has witnessed detrimental side effects of overcrowding in its forest reserves as a result of increased ecotourism. Take for instance the increasingly popular Manuel Antonio Park. Heavy interest in this area has led developers to overbuild, which has threatened the diverse monkey population and other wildlife in the park. On the other hand, ecotourism has been a successful strategy for Cost Rica. Due to its consistency in approach, Costa Rica has successfully promoted an environmentally sound ecotourism industry over the past few decades. Additionally, ecotourism has had an inclusive macroeconomic strategy that benefits local communities, generates jobs as well as revenues, and has inspired further research in the areas of ecology and biodiversity. As a whole, Costa Rica offers a panoramic and pristine view of exactly how ecotourism can benefit a soceity, local communities, and the environment. Beginning of ecotourism in Brazil Ecotourism was first introduced in Brazil, on the governamental level, in 1985, when the Brazilian Institute of Tourism (Embratur) started its Ecological Tourism project. The first intention to put things in order was made in 1987 by creating the National Technical Commission, consisting of experts from both the Brazilian Institute for the Enviroment and Renovable Natural Resources (Ibama) and Embratur. The main goal of the commission was to monitor the Ecological Tourism project, as a reaction on ecotourism observed at that time, which was little organized and not at all sustainable. Although, the efforts made by govermnent were not sufficient to end with barriers between theory and practice of ecotourism. The principal problem was the lack of a unified concept of a segment, i. e. no existing criteria, regulation and incentives that would direct firms and investors and the government itself to promote and use effectively the natural assets of a country, and to protect them at the same time. As a consequence, the ecotourism in Brazil used to be an activity without any mark of order and very confused, where the main objective was to generate a profit, totally ignoring its other aspects, like socioeconomic and environmental benefits for the country. The brazilian ecotourism in the late 80s and early 90s was more likely the regular tourism which used the ecologic aspect just to sell better. Environmental experts referred to it as an â€Å"eco-opportunismâ€Å". Creating legal framework for ecotourism In 1994, a workgroup of experts of all ministries involved (Ministry of Environment, Imdustry, Commerce and Tourism) met in Goias Velho, Goias, to create a document â€Å"Directives for National Ecotourism Policyâ€Å". With this document, they set a legal framework for ecotourism in Brazil, which was defined: Ecotourism is a segment of tourism activity which uses, in a sustainable way, natural and cultural assets, incentives their conservation and looks for a creation of an ervironmental consciousness throught the interpretation of an environment and promoting the welfare of communities involved at the same time. This definition and all the other directives were created with favourable to a profitable tourism connected to environmental and cultural peculiarities of Brazil. The effort was made to assure growth of this particular branch of tourism all over Brazil, with the following criteria what ecotourism should do: -Provide better life conditions for communities in the areas of ecotourism. -Promote valuation of the environment -Create wealth and promote employment To make an opportunity to learn about natural and cultural assets in order to promote knowledge of new generations. Another important decision was made at the meeting – the government should start to cooperate with various NGOs and, together, educate prospective employers in the sector of ecotourism. The opinions of NGOs were often accepted by government in the process of building adequate infrastructure to promote sustainable growth of ecotourism in Brazil. Setting the principles Last but not least, the main concerns regarding ecotourism in Brazil were defined and published as a list of actions recommended to promote the sector in the whole country. : 1. Regulation of ecotourism – The necessity of its own legal framework, harmonized with both state and federal laws. 2. Institutional Interaction – Intensification of exchanging information and experience between governamental institutions and private sector. 3. Human Resources Creation – Education and training of personnel to work in an area of ecotourism. 4. Quality control – Creation of tools for observation, evaluation and improvement of ecotourism including both public and private sector. 5. Distribution of information – Creation of a database with the access for all national and various international institutions involved, including indicators monitoring the evolution of ecotourism. 6. Incentives to develop ecotourism – Promotion and stimulation of economic activity in the sector together with infrastructure in order to provide high quality services, especially in priority ecotourism destinations. . Information for tourists – providing the tourists knowledge about the destination they visit to make them respect the local environment. 8. Participation of communities – Make people living in major ecotourism destinations participate in the sector and modify their lifestyle to increase sustainability of the area. With the help of mentioned governamental regulation and cooperation between state instituti ons and many NGOs, the ecotourism grew by 15 % a year until 2000, while the tourism as a whole only grew 3 % anually. There were created ecotourism destinations in all brazilian states and the rigorous control has contributed to a sustainability of the sector and to protection of natural assets of Brazil. Costa Rica – Present part The tourism boom in Costa Rica began in 1987 (Crist Inman, 1997) with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1 million in 1999, to 1. 9 million foreign visitors in 2007, allowing the country to earn US $1. 9 billion in that year (World Tourism Barometer, 2008). By 2002, about 1. 1 million tourists arrived in Costa Rica, with about 830,000 of them being ecotourists (Saenz, 2001). Thus, tourism in Costa Rica has since 1999 been one of Costa Rica’s most important industries exemplified by the fact that it earns more foreign exchange than traditional commodities such as pineapples, banana and coffee combined (Departamento de Estadisticas ICT (2006) (need statistics on that ). In 2001, ecotourism accounted for an annual growth rate of 20-30 percent (Dasenbruck, 2001). Today, being the nation’s principal industry, ecotourism contributes an estimated US $825mn to the economy annually as well as a 19 % increase in the number of tourists visiting in 2005 (â€Å"Ecotourism can be good business! , 2006). Economic impact The Travel ; Tourism industry in Costa Rica encompasses transport, accommodation, catering, recreation and services for visitors. Below are presented some macroeconomic indicators in relation to the industry. GDP The Travel ;Tourism industry is expected to contribute directly 5. 3% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2008 (CRC778. 8 bn or US$1,466. 2 mn), rising in nominal terms to CRC2,005. 5 bn or US$2,639. 2 mn (5. 8% of total) by 2018. Additionally, according to WTTC the real growth of T;T in Costa Rica is forecasted to see a real rise of 1,2 % (US$ 3,769) in the economy GDP in 2008. Moreover, real GDP growth is expected to grow at an average of 4,7 % per annum over the coming 10 years. Employment The T;T economy contribution to employment is expected to rise from 258. 000 jobs in 2008, which represents 13,1 % of total employment, or 1 in every 7. 6 jobs to 359. 000 representing 14,4 % of total employment or 1 in every 6. 9 jobs by 2018 (WTTC, 2008). Visitor exports Export earnings from international and visitors are expected to generate 17,1 % of total exports (US $ 2,270,8 mn) in 2008 growing, in nominal terms, to 16,8 % (US$ 4,369,3 mn) of total exports in 2018 (WTTC, 2008). Investment Travel ; Tourism Capital Investment is estimated at CRC515. 0 bn, US$969. 5 mn or 15. 1 % of total investment in year 2008. By 2018, this should reach CRC1,225. 1 bn, US$1,612. 2 mn or 15. 6 % of total (WTTC, 2008). Foreign investment has had a major role to play in the development of the Costa Rican ecotourism industry. It was both politically and financially supported by the IMF, The World Bank and USAID. For instance, in 2001 the World Bank approved a US $40 mn loan of which most of it focused on ecotourism (Dasenbruck, 2001). Given that Costa Rica has a solid credit rating with international lenders along with international support from the abovementioned institutions gives the country a degree of financial stability in handling substantial costs in the development of the ecotourism industry. Government Government Travel ; Tourism operating expenditures in Costa Rica in 2008 are expected to total CRC122. 9 bn (US$231. 3 mn), or 6. 2% of total government spending. In 2018, this spending is forecast to total CRC396. 1 bn (US$521. 3 mn), or a 6. 4% share (WTTC, 2008). I’ll add more here about government institutions and initiatives, laws, regulations†¦. Ecotourism and the environment Behind ecotourism lies the idea of preserving a nation’s natural resources while profiting from them (Dasenbruck, 2001). Similarly to Brazil, ecotourism is overall considered to be beneficial to the environment compared to conventional forms of tourism e. g. mass tourism, exemplified by Cancun in Mexico with 4,000 room hotel resorts. One of the reasons that ecotourism in Costa Rica enjoys such high importance economically is because there exists a strong environmental lobby based in the â€Å"green industry† (Dasenbruck, 2001. This lobby recognizes the long-term benefits of aintaining an environmentally friendly image and therefore it supports most of the government’s conservation initiatives. Some, however, argue that ecotourism is an oxymoron, since travel at its base is detrimental to the environment. Airplane fossil fuels and the pollution coming from jet airplanes are used as examples of evidence, that international travel and environmental protection are mutually exclusive by nature (Dasenbruck, 2002). Ecotourism in Brazil Current Growth Brazilian ecotourism began to grow exponentially after the country woke up to its eco-potential during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Still, ecotourism in Brazil continues to grow at a rapid pace. While the tourism industry overall grows at a rate of 3% annually, ecotourism is up by 15%. Other areas such as the city of Bonito are experiencing bigger growths of 20-30%. (Planeta) Furthermore, it is estimated that by the year 2010, ecotourism could make up as much as 50% of the travel industry according to Dorival Bruni, president of the non-profit Biosphere society. Considering that one of the largest ecotourism destinations in the world is the Amazon, this estimate is considerably probable. It is estimated by the World Tourism Organization that ecotourism may represent 2-4% of the world’s tourism. In 2000, ecotourism accounted for 10% of Brazilian tourism revenues (Bioesfera, 2001). The next three economic markers show Brazil’s travel and tourism industry’s contribution toward total GDP, employment, and exports. GDP The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) research findings reported that the Travel & Tourism industry is expected to contribute directly 2. 5% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2008 BRL 70. 6 or US$36. 1bn), rising in nominal terms to BRL157. bn or US$53. 2bn(2. 6% of total) by 2018 (WTTC). Employment Brazil’s Travel & Tourism Economy employment is estimated at 5,500,000 jobs in 2008, 5. 9% of total employment, or 1 in every 16. 9 jobs. By 2018, this should total 7,634,000 jobs, 6. 6% of total employment, or 1 in every 15. 2 jobs (WTTC). Exports Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to gener ate 5. 9% of total exports (BRL22. 5 bn or US$11. 5 bn) in 2008, growing (nominal terms) to BRL65. 4 bn or US$22. 1 bn (5. 4% of total) in 2018 (WTTC). Ecotourism and the environment One of the core benefits of ecotourism is the sustainability of the environment thus; ecotourism is an economically productive way to protect Brazil’s natural wonders. Consequently, Brazil’s continued growth of ecotourism is also generating a positive social impact. Local skilled and semi-skilled populations are benefiting the most from this current growth. According to Joao Mireilles Filho, president of the Peabiru Ecotourism Institute and of the Brazilian Ecotourism Institute (IEB), one of the most visited regions in Brazil for ecotourism is the Pantanal region, which is a vast series of wetlands in the upper Paraguay River Basin. The capital of this region, a town called Bonito is the main launching spot for ecotourists. Socially, Bonito accounts for about 2,000 jobs in the sector out of a population of less than 20,000 people. (Planeta) Investments As ecotourism continues to grow, it will provide investment opportunities for private and foreign investors who see the value in this industry. One region of such potential is The Ribeira de Iguape River, one of the most important rivers in the Brazilian southeastern state of Sao Paulo. The Ribeira de Iguape Valley is known for its complex geology and natural riches with a number of limestone caves and important mineral resources. Currently it is still characterized by poverty and underdevelopment however; ecotourism in the region has now a US$ 15 million financing – US$ 9 million from the IDB (Inter-American Development Bank) and US$ 6 million from the government of Sao Paulo for improvement in infra-structure, training and organization. The Monetary International Fund (MIF) provided a $1. 7 million grant to improve the quality and competitiveness of small to medium sized enterprises in the tourist sector. By the year 2010, more than 5,000 firms are in the tourist sector are expected to pursue certification. It is estimated that ecotourism will receive a considerable amount of this grant. (IDB) In February 2006, the IDB approved a loan of $9 million toward improvements in infrastructure, including highways and productive systems in the Atlantic Forest region of the state of Sao Paolo. This project will benefit six parks which will benefit by retaining their visitors and acquiring financial sustainability while protecting their natural wonders. Opportunities One of the biggest areas of opportunity for Brazil is the Amazon region. This region is home to some 20 million people and is known for the biological diversity of its ecosystem and the great diversity of flora and fauna. It has the potential to become one of the largest ecotourism attractions in the world. As a matter of fact, it is 98 times larger than Costa Rica. Unfortunately in 2000 it only earned US400 million in exports which is less than half of Costa Rica’s total revenues during that time. This equates to a meager . 05% of the world’s ecotourism revenues in 2000. One of the biggest challenges facing this region is the lack of infrastructure such as energy power, communication, and transportation. The government taken some steps to ameliorate the situation by launching PROECOTUR (The Program of Development of Eco-Tourism in the Amazon) with the help of the IDB to develop and improve the infrastructure of selected areas in the region. It includes surveying best practices for ecotourism, financing ecotourism projects, developing tourist infrastructure, and assisting investors with technological and financial aid (SCA). Since deforestation has already affected large areas of the Amazon, Proecotur should bring more visitors to the region as well as sustainable revenue. Another project launched was the Poles project by the tourist and travel agency Embrateur in conjunction with the Ecotourism institute in an effort to establish guidelines for the development of ecotourism poles around the country. Brazil vs. Costa Rica Ecotourism in Brazil is still underdeveloped especially in the Amazon region which has tremendous upward potential in terms of providing a greater source of income on both a local and a national level for the Brazilian economy. In exploring various economic, political, and social factors that influence the ability of these countries to expand their ecotourism market, Costa seems to have the better position. In terms of GDP contribution relative to each country’s national economy, Costa Rica 13. 5% doubles Brazil’s 6. 2% indicating that there is significant room for growth for Brazil due to its tremendous size. Consequently, Costa Rica’s employment as well as exports are also incrementally higher at 13. 1% vs. 5. 9% and 17. 1% and 5. 9% respectively. On the other hand, Brazil has a much higher potential in terms of growth largely due to its untapped Amazon region. In terms of Real Growth, Brazil’s future looks bright. In 2008, Brazil is forecast to see Real Growth of 6. 7% in terms of Direct Industry GDP. Nominally, this represents an increase of US$36bn. With regards to Direct Industry Employment, an increase of 6. 4% is expected which means an additional 2,279,000 jobs will be generated. In contrast, Costa Rica is expected to see a Real Growth of -1. 5% in terms of Direct Industry GDP (in nominal terms US$1,466,000mn) and -3. 9% decrease in Direct Industry Employment. Brazil will be able to handle such growth but will need to have a collaborative effort nationally if they want to sustain their current growth. The government certainly plays an important role in the development of ecotourism in Brazil. They must provide the overall policy environment to permit development to proceed along an orderly path, and should welcome the involvement of other sectors. Furthermore, there is a need to teach policy makers the importance of ecotourism as a viable financial profit sanctuary so that policies reflect social and environmental concerns as well as market realities. Next, effective certification programs should be implemented to ensure adequate information of products and services is given to the public. Educating consumers and raising awareness on the importance to protect the national environment should stimulate demand for socially and environmentally friendly products that ecotourism provides. Lastly, significant improvement of Brazil’s logistic resources such as roads, electric power and infrastructure in the Amazon region will be quintessential for the sustainability of Brazil’s ecotourism industry.